9. Leadership and Management Development

Leadership and management play a significant role in the success of an organization and hence it is important to note that Drucker (1955) said, the ability of any organization to succeed, depend on how well its management perform in the future. Managers who receive leadership and management development are guaranteed to possess the managerial and leadership skills necessary for success (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014).

 

Leadership

According to Dixon (1994), leadership defines to have a strong influence over others that they are compelled to work together to accomplish a goal, that they may not have taken as easily if left to their own selves. Armstrong and Taylor (2014) describe leadership as, motivating others to put up their best effort in order to accomplish a goal. It includes creating and sharing a future oriented vision, inspiring individuals and winning their support.

 

Management

A common definition of management is “getting things done through people,” which highlights the importance of leadership in the field. However, managers are also in charge of controlling and overseeing the company, through the management of their other resources, including technology, work processes and finances (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014). Hersey and Blanchard (1998) claim that management is just leadership applied to business settings or in other words, management is a subset of the larger process of leadership.

Difference between Leadership and Management

According to Bennis (1989), leaders concentrate on defying the rules and encouraging effectiveness, whereas managers prioritize efficiency, adherence to the law and embrace the status quo. Kotter (1991) states that, leaders set direction, handle change and inspire others, whereas managers plan, budget, organize and control. Moreover, Katz (1955) claims that management is a unidirectional authority relationship, but leadership is a multidirectional influence relationship.

 

Leadership Development

According to Bolden (2010), key elements of leadership development are personal support, reflection, practice, self-awareness and opportunities to implement learning into practice. While Burgoyne (2010) claims that the acquisition, development and utilization of leadership capability or the potential for it, comprise leadership development in the broadest sense. Participants in leadership development programs prepare for leadership positions and situations that go beyond their current experience. Burgoyne (2010) identified several leadership development activities which include;

• Work placements where one of the goals is to develop leadership capabilities.
• Education, training and development of individuals, including the methods of coaching, mentoring and more formal education.
• Soft organisation development processes, such as team building, culture change and values creating initiatives.

 

Management Development

The goals of management development are to help managers perform better in their current positions, equip them to take on more responsibility in the future and enhance their leadership abilities (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014). Besides, Baldwin and Patgett (1994) state that management development is a complex process by which people learn to perform effectively in a managerial position.

 

Application of Leadership and Management Development in the Tea Plantation Industry

Leadership and management development programs promote innovation and technology usage to enhance productivity and allow regional plantation companies to remain competitive in the dynamic tea industry. Managers and employees are trained on modern agricultural machinery (used for tea plucking, digging etc.) which will increase yield, reduce cost of production, enhance profits and expedite decision making processes.

Figure 16 Use of advanced machinery in Tea Plantations

Source: (Hayleys Agriculture, 2023)

 

In addition, leadership and management development programs focus on implementing strict quality control measures at every stage of tea production to ensure that Sri Lankan tea maintains its premium status in global markets. This complex process involves training on pest and disease management, soil health maintenance and best factory practices in accordance to international quality standards.

For example, Talawakelle Tea Estates PLC achieved the first HACCP Certification at Great Western Tea Estate in 2001. In January 2006, company also achieved the first ISO 22000 Food Safety Management Systems certification, showcasing its commitment in quality tea manufacturing process (The World of Hayleys, 2024).

 

References

Armstrong, M. and Taylor, S. (2014) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. 13th edition. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Baldwin, T.T. and Patgett, M.Y. (1994) Management development: a review and a commentary.

Bennis, W.G. (1989) On Becoming a Leader. New York: Addison Wesley.

Bolden, R. (2010) Leadership, management and organizational development.

Burgoyne, J. (2010) Crafting a leadership and management development strategy.

Dixon, N.F. (1994) On the Psychology of Military Incompetence. London: Pimlico.

Drucker, P. (1955) The Practice of Management. Oxford: Heinemann.

Hayleys Agriculture, (2023) Revolutionizing Tea Production: Hayleys Agriculture Showcases Advanced Machinery at Meddegedara Tea Estate – June 2023. [Online] Available from: https://www.hayleysagriculture.com/blog/revolutionizing-tea-production-hayleys-agriculture-showcases-advanced-machinery-at-meddegedara-tea-estate/ [Accessed: 11 April 2024].

Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K.H. (1998) Management of Organizational Behaviour. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Katz, R.L. (1955) Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review.

Kotter, J.P. (1991) Power, dependence and effective management, Boston: Harvard Business School Publications.

The World of Hayleys, (2024) Talawakelle Tea Estates (TTEL), [Online] Available from: https://www.hayleys.com/mabroc-tea/ [Accessed: 11 April 2024].

8. Learning Organisation

 This is a concept developed by Senge (1990, 3) and he describes a learning organization as one,

“where people continually expand their capacity to create the results, they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free and where people are continually learning how to learn together”

According to Dawoood et al, (2015, 93-98) a learning organization is an organisation that analyses, reviews, builds up and unites its learning processes with set goals and objectives. It is made up of individuals who possess enhanced potential to learn into the corporate culture. While Pedler et al (1997, 3) define it as an organization that encourages learning among all of its members and keeps changing continuously.

However, Scarborough et al (1999) argue that the learning organisation framework places too much emphasis on organisational designs and systems and people's learning preferences and methods don't appear to get much consideration.

Benefits of Learning Organization

According to PeopleHum (2023), benefits of a learning organization are as follows;

• A higher profit.
• An increase in productivity.
• Fostering leadership at all levels facilitates succession planning.
• Creating a culture of knowledge sharing, adaptability and inquiry.
• Decrease in employee turnover.
• Facilitating both individuals and groups to accept and adjust to change.

Characteristics of Learning Organization

Moreover, Garvin (1993, 78-91) claims that learning organizations are good at doing five things, namely; systematic problem solving, experimentation, learning from past experience, learning from others and transferring knowledge.

 

Systematic Problem Solving

Garvin (1993) argues that Systematic Problem Solving mainly depends on philosophy and methods of the quality movement. One of its fundamental principles is to diagnose issues using the scientific method as opposed to assumptions. Background information for decisions must come from data. In order to arrange data and make deductions, basic statistical methods and fact based management are utilized.

Figure 13 Blister Blight in Tea Leaves

Source: (Karunarathna et al, 2012)

 

Management of the plantation companies encourage workers to identify and report problems such as fungal diseases, root diseases etc in tea bushes promptly. Accordingly, remedies are provided in order to control fungal diseases such as blister blight as per the recommendations of Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka (TRI, 2020).

 

Experimentation

This refers when new knowledge is systematically pursued and tested. Programs for continuous improvement are a crucial component of a learning organisation (Garvin, 1993). Plantation companies conduct experiments on new fertilizer applications, irrigation techniques etc. in designated areas within tea plantations. Moreover, TRI conduct experiments on soil fertility improvements, mechanization, value addition etc (TRI, 2020).

Learning from Past Experience

This refers that learning organisations analyse their accomplishments and failures, evaluate them methodically and document the lessons learned in a manner that is clear and easy for employees to access (Garvin, 1993). Tea plantation companies conduct regular evaluations of past performance, document lessons learned previously and share them with employees to enhance knowledge.

 

Learning from Others

According to Garvin (1993), this is the methodical process of identifying organisations that showcase best practices and determining how much of their work can be implemented, with appropriate modifications, to an organization’s own setting.

Figure 14 Female Supervisors at Talawakelle Tea Estates PLC

Source: (Groundviews, 2024)

 

Finlays Tea Estates Sri Lanka (Pvt) Ltd has been one of the first companies in the country to recruit women for supervisory/managerial positions (Daily News, 2021). Following on the footsteps of Finlays Tea Estates, Talawakelle Tea Estates PLC has also started recruiting women for supervisory positions, overcoming discrimination and providing equal opportunities (Groundviews, 2024).

Transferring Knowledge

Knowledge and information must be documented and distributed. This guarantees that information and understanding are known across the organization (Garvin, 1993). Tea plantation companies have adopted mechanisms to transferring knowledge within the companies such as mentorship programs, training sessions etc.

Figure 15 TRI Advisory Circular on Fertilizer Recommendations

Source: (TRI Advisory Circular, 2000)

 

Experienced tea pluckers, sprayers, staff officers such as field officers and factory officers serve as trainers for newer employees, passing on their years of expertise. Additionally, Tea Research Institute (TRI) of Sri Lanka transfers knowledge to entire Tea Industry via its advisory circulars.

 

References

Daily News, (2021) Two ladies at Finlays shattering a 154-year old glass ceiling in Sri Lankan tea. [Online] Available from: https://archives1.dailynews.lk/2021/03/12/business/243782/two-ladies-finlays-shattering-154-year-old-glass-ceiling-sri-lankan-tea [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

Dawoood, S., Mammona., Fahmeeda., and Ahmed, A. (2015) Learning Organization - Conceptual and Theoretical Overview. IJHSSE.

Garvin, D.A. (1993) Building a learning organization, Harvard Business Review.

Gordon, J. (2023) Learning Organizations (Management) - Explained. [Online] The Business Professor LLC. Available from: https://thebusinessprofessor.com/en_US/management-leadership-organizational-behavior/learning-organizations [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

Groundviews (2024) Shattering Glass Ceilings in the Tea Plantation Industry. [Online] Available from: https://groundviews.org/2024/03/10/shattering-glass-ceilings-in-the-tea-plantation-industry/ [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

Karunarathna, S.C., Udayanga, D., Maharachchikumbura, S. and Manamgoda, D.S. (2012) Current status of knowledge of Sri Lankan mycota. [Online] Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Some-common-fungal-diseases-on-tea-in-Sri-Lanka-A-Black-blight-caused-by-Rhizoctonia_fig2_234017599 [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J. and Boydell, T. (1997) The Learning Company: A strategy for sustainable development. 2nd edition. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.

PeopleHum (2023) Learning Organization [Online] PeopleHum Technology Inc. Available from: https://www.peoplehum.com/glossary/learning-organization [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

Scarborough, H., Swan, J. and Preston, J. (1999) Knowledge Management: A literature review. London: IPM.

Senge, P. (1990) The Fifth Discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. London: Doubleday.

TRI Advisory Circular, (2000) Fertilizer Recommendations for Mature Tea. Tea Research Institute.

TRI, (2020) Plant Pathology. [Online] Tea Research Institute. Available from: https://www.tri.lk/plant-pathology/ [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

TRI, (2020) Priority Research Areas. [Online] Tea Research Institute. Available from: https://www.tri.lk/major-research-areas/ [Accessed: 10 April 2024].

7. Honey and Mumford Learning Style

Honey and Mumford learning style identifies following four learning styles; Activists, Reflectors, Theorists and Pragmatics. These learning styles are not exclusive. One individual may be a reflector as well as a theorist, while another person may be an activist and a pragmatist, a reflector and pragmatist or even a theorist and pragmatist (Honey and Mumford, 1996).

Figure 10 Honey and Mumford Learning Style

Source: (Rosewell, 2005)

 

                                                              Source: (Geoghegan, 2020)

Activists

Armstrong and Taylor (2014) describe activists as those who embrace new challenges and completely engage in new experiences without bias. Rosewell (2005) claims that activists love collaborating with others on role playing, gaming and problem solving activities and they are capable of leading a group. 

However, they learn least when they are required to read, write and think independently. Besides, listening to lectures or lengthy explanations, analyzing and evaluating lots of data or follow detailed instructions are not something activists enjoy doing (Rosewell, 2005).

Tea plantation companies in the country engage in lot of sustainability initiatives, keen on environmental conservation and community development initiatives. Hands on tasks like plucking, pruning, operating machinery etc, training programs focus on practical demonstrations and on the job learning experiences are designed to cater to activists learning style.

 

Reflectors

Reflectors take a step back and view new experiences from several perspectives. They gather information, consider and then reach a conclusion (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014). As per Rosewell (2005), reflectors learn best when given time to think and investigate before commenting or acting. They perform well when provided an opportunity to reevaluate events and when jobs are assigned without strict deadlines. But they learn the least when forced to take charge in a group and act without preparation.

Reflectors in the tea plantation industry benefit from opportunities to observe and analyze various aspects of tea cultivation and manufacturing process. They are involved in tasks such as monitoring plant health, assessing environmental impacts, evaluating the quality of teas etc. Training programs for reflectors include structured exercises, case studies and mentorship opportunities to encourage critical thinking and informed decision making based on thorough analysis.

Figure 11 Monitoring Plant Health at a Tea Estate

Source: (Amarathunga, 2019)

 

Theorists

McPheat (2024) claims that models, theories and anything that presents an idea in an orderly fashion are preferred by theorists. These people could find it difficult to work in situations when the directions or goals are unclear or when the work is more emotional.

Theorists are interested in scientific theories in tea cultivation, processing methods and quality assurance practices. They excel in research, data analysis and developing strategies to enhance productivity. Training programs focus theoretical frameworks, technical knowledge and theoretical discussion.

For instance, Uva Wellassa University offers a degree program on Tea technology and Value Addition where learners can obtain a complete understanding on the theoretical aspects of tea cultivation and different manufacturing processes (Uva Wellassa University, 2022).

 

Pragmatists

These individuals are eager to test out new concepts, methods and ideas to discover if they are effective (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014). Pragmatists must comprehend how the knowledge they are gaining relates to real world situations. They look for real world examples that are closely related to the task they have. Nevertheless, these learners can find it difficult when goals or instructions are not clear (McPheat, 2024).

In the tea plantation industry, training programs for pragmatists emphasize roles that involve problem solving, process optimization etc. They also involve real scenarios, hands on training exercises and opportunities to apply theoretical knowledge in practical situations.

Figure 12 Practical Training conducted at a Tea Estate

Source: (Amarathunga, 2019)

 

References

Amarathunga, M.K.S.L.D. (2019) Blog 100- Public-Private Partnership Extension Model for the Tea Smallholding Sector in Sri Lanka. [Online] Aesanetwork. Available from: https://www.aesanetwork.org/blog-100-public-private-partnership-extension-model-for-the-tea-smallholding-sector-in-sri-lanka/ [Accessed: 9 April 2024].

Armstrong, M. and Taylor, S. (2014) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. 13th edition. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Geoghegan, D. (2020) Honey and Mumford Learning Styles. [Online Video] Available from: https://youtu.be/-92dIFiN_p8?si=QHXvHlUBhtB-ODwn [Accessed: 9 April 2024].

Honey, P and Mumford, A (1996) The Manual of Learning Styles. 3rd edition. Maidenhead: Honey Publications.

McPheat, S. (2024) The Honey and Mumford Learning Cycle. [Online] Management Training and Development Ltd. Available from: https://www.mtdtraining.com/blog/honey-and-mumford-learning-cycle.htm [Accessed: 9 April 2024].

Rosewell, J. (2005) Learning styles. The Open University.

Uva Wellassa University. (2022) Tea Technology and Value Addition Degree Program. [Online] Available from: https://www.uwu.ac.lk/academic/faculties/animal-science-and-export-agriculture/TEA/ [Accessed: 9 April 2024].

6. VAK Learning Style

In the 1920s, the VAK Learning Style was developed by psychologists in order to identify three preferences in which people learn. They are namely Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic (Pratchett et al, 2016).

Wulansari (2016) highlights that the VAK learning model is a multisensory approach that incorporates three learning models known as Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic. Additionally, Rambe and Zainuddin (2014) states that the VAK is a quantum learning approach that combines students' motivation, engagement and cognitive processing habits. This has an impact on how well they use metacognitive skills such as situation analysis, self pacing and self evaluation.

Figure 8 VAK Learning Style Preferences

Source: (Sprengel, 2020)

 

Characteristics of Each Learning Style

Visual Learning

Sreenidhi and Helena (2017) argue that concepts, information and ideas are linked to images and methods in visual learning. It is one of the three fundamental types of learning styles and is present in 60% to 65% of the general population.

Visual learners process information better through sight, are more likely to forget information they have only heard and prefer to see things. They appreciate working in groups, prefer to view concepts as a whole rather than as separate pieces and get insight from understanding the goals and objectives of learning sessions. They are also proficient in sign language. Spelling accuracy is high among visual learners, but tend to forget names. They are often distracted by other people's movements and prefer less formal environments to learn. They can comprehend intricate maps, graphs and charts and are intrigued with colour. In order to recall information, they might make use of symbols, diagrams and colour coding (Sreenidhi and Helena, 2017).

 

Auditory Learning

According to Sreenidhi and Helena (2017), auditory learning is a learning style where individuals learn through listening and about 30% of the population are auditory learners. They prefer to hear information and follow verbal instructions, preferring to understand small parts and relationships between them. Auditory learners are skill oriented, memorize tasks well and benefit from traditional teaching styles. They can communicate well orally and excel in writing responses to lectures, oral exams, presentations and they may dislike to keep notes or conduct personal research and they prefer delivering presentations over written reports.

Sreenidhi and Helena (2017) also argue that auditory learners can understand the true meaning of someone's words by listening to audible signals like changes in tone. They tend to accurately recall what has been spoken but may benefit from additional reading or writing out facts. They enjoy explaining their learning to others and learn from discussion.

 

Kinesthetic Learning

Kinesthetic learning is also known as tactile learning and it is a learning style where students engage in physical activities rather than passively listening to lectures or watching demonstrations. Kinesthetic learners make up about 5% of the population, is characterized by natural discovery and experimentation. These learners prefer hands on activities and often learn best in simulated or real environments (Sreenidhi and Helena, 2017).

Sreenidhi and Helena (2017) further states that kinesthetic learners excel in various subjects such as chemistry experiments, sports, art, acting and may also listen to music while studying or learning. Their short and long term memory is strengthened by their body movements and they often visualize their own body movements. They possess very good hand eye coordination and quick receptors. As a result of their constant need to move, high levels of energy and frequent fidgeting, kinesthetic learners may stand out in a normal classroom setting.

 

Application of VAK Learning Style in the Tea Plantation Industry

Visual Learning

Tea plantation industry utilizes visual learning in the form of charts and graphs when trainings are conducted to illustrate concepts such as fluctuations in the tea harvest, volumes of fertilizer applications etc. Companies also employ instructional videos showing pruning methods, machinery operation and quality control procedures.

 

Auditory Learning

Supervisors provide verbal instructions and explanations to learners, when new tasks or procedures are taught in the tea plantation. Moreover, engaging in group discussions and workshops where ideas and experiences are shared verbally, are beneficial for auditory learners in the tea plantation industry to understand concepts and enhance knowledge.

Figure 9 Supervisors providing instructions at a Tea Estate in Sri Lanka

Source: (ILO, 2018)

Kinesthetic Learning

Kinesthetic learning is one of the most prevalent learning styles in the Tea Plantation industry. Employers of tea estates provide the workers with opportunities to directly engage in tasks such as tea plucking, pruning, weeding (In field) and operating machinery in the tea factory. In addition, simulating real life situations through role playing activities, such as fire training, allows factory employees to actively participate and learn through experience, is a good illustration of the kinesthetic learning style in use in the tea plantation industry.

Figure 10 Fire training session at Ahinsa Tea Factory

(Ahinsa Tea, 2023)

References

Ahinsa Tea, (2023) Ahinsa Tea organized a Live Fire Demonstration Training Program for all Employees. [Facebook] 6 February. Available from: https://web.facebook.com/ahinsateas/posts/pfbid04JfxE5fK22HhVqHHJidg1x1XYZBFoZoDyYzW1JxwKFNTWxBDydgLkg95Pzgmfdi7l [Accessed: 8 April 2024].

Rambe, H. H., and Zainuddin. (2014) The Effect of Using Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic (VAK) Learning Model on Students’ Achievement in Writing Recount Text.

Sprengel, R. (2020) Learning Styles Online: how can we allow for different learner types? [Online] ELTAS. Available from: https://www.eltas.de/2020/07/01/learning-styles/ [Accessed: 8 April 2024].

Sreenidhi, S.K. and Helena, T.C. (2017) Styles of Learning Based on the Research of Fernald, Keller, Orton, Gillingham, Stillman, Montessori and Neil D Fleming. International Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field.

Wulansari, Y. (2016) The use of visual auditory kinesthetic (VAK) learning model to improve students’ reading comprehension (Unpublished Thesis). Department of Teacher Training and Education. Faculty State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Salatiga.

5. Kolb’s Learning Cycle

Figure 6 Kolb’s Learning Cycle

Source: (Toronto Metropolitan University, 2023)

Kolb (1984) refers learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”.

The Experiential Learning Theory, which was introduced in 1984 by social psychologist David Kolb claims that when experience is grasped and transformed, knowledge is created. Kolb further states that grasping experience means taking in information that occurs in “Concrete Experience” and “Abstract Conceptualization” stages. Transforming experience describes how individuals understand and use that information in “Reflective Observation” and “Active Experimentation” stages (Toronto Metropolitan University, 2023).

                                                           Source: (Lee, 2023)

Cunningham (1994) claims that Kolb's Learning Cycle is one of the most well known examples of management training which explains the fundamental theory of experience learning and may be tailored to an organisation's needs as it acquires abstract concepts.

Stage	Definition
Concrete Experience (CE) [Feeling]	The educator is a facilitator. Concrete or immediate experiences take place and they serve as the foundation for observations and reflections.
Reflective Observation (RO) [Watching]	The educator, who is the subject matter expert, facilitates reflection by providing pertinent lectures and texts and by establishing a framework and a space for methodical analysis through reflective practice.
Abstract Conceptualization (AC) [Thinking]	The educator is the standard setter and evaluator, assisting students master the application of knowledge and skill in order to achieve performance requirements.
Active Experimentation (AE) [Doing]	The educator is a coach assisting students apply knowledge to accomplish their goals in their learning context. These implications can be actively tested and guide students in making new experiences during this stage.

Figure 8 Kolb’s 4-Stage Process

Source: (Toronto Metropolitan University, 2023)

However, Coffield et al (2004) challenge Kolb’s Learning Cycle on conceptual and empirical grounds. For instance, he claims that Kolb prevaricates whether his model represents four learning styles or four learning stages. The distinction of the two is fundamental since learning styles can be described as inherited or acquired personality types, while learning stages refer to sequential steps in a learning cycle. Martin (1994) argues that there are some practical concerns and limitations in the Kolb’s learning cycle as experiences of people are not equal or unique.

Application of Kolb’s Learning Cycle in the Tea Plantation Industry

 

Concrete Experience

The tea plantation industry provides workers with practical tasks such as planting, harvesting, and tea manufacturing. This direct involvement allows them to learn skills and experience real life situations in their work place. For instance, a tea plucker harvests around 15-20 KGs quite efficiently and her knowledge to hand pick which leaves are suitable to harvest and which are not derives from her experience on job (Dalela, 2017).

 

Reflective Observation

Workers analyze and reflect on their actions, outcomes and overall process. This stage encourages them to discuss challenges, consider alternative approaches and evaluate their experiences with supervisors, field officers and factory officers. For example, this include evaluating tea harvesting methods and impact of weather conditions on tea quality.

Abstract Conceptualization

Employees are encouraged to apply their observations and reflections to expand their conceptual knowledge and understanding. They make a connection between their experiences and accepted theories of tea planting and machinery operation. This phase promotes critical thinking and a better understanding of basic ideas, such as methods for managing soil, the fundamentals of processing tea etc.

 

Active Experimentation

Workers experiment with new ideas, strategies, and approaches based on their understanding and reflections. They may explore tools and technology to enhance efficiency, productivity or tea quality. Examples include, innovative irrigation methods, organic farming practices etc.

 

References

Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, H. and Ecclestone, K. (2004) Learning styles and pedagogy inpost-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.

Cunningham, I. (1994) The wisdom of strategic learning. London: McGraw-Hill.

Dalela, S. (2017) How is Ceylon tea cultivated? [Online] TeaKruthi. Available from: https://www.torontomu.ca/experiential-learning/faculty-staff/kolbs-el-cycle/ [Accessed: 5 April 2024].

Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Lee, Y.L. (2023) David Kolb's experiential learning. [Online Video] Available from: https://youtu.be/MMB1bRYcU8c?si=OeHNSopRSPSSD-ly [Accessed: 5 April 2024].

Martin, L.J. (1994) Power Continuity and Change: decoding black and white women managers' experience in local government. Routledge.

Toronto Metropolitan University, (2024) Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle. [Online] Available from: https://www.torontomu.ca/experiential-learning/faculty-staff/kolbs-el-cycle/ [Accessed: 4 April 2024].